Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. 1. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. In 1963 we found that cholinergic stimulation of a descending pathway (within Nauta's limbic-mesencephalic system) causes sleep (33). While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. 94. Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. Epub 2010 Nov 12. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. We propose that the function of dream sleep (more properly rapid-eye movement or REM sleep) is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. Control of ventilation during sleep. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. Plenum Press, 1990. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:22-3. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). San Diego, 1973. Vertes RP. 46. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. Essential manifestations of dreaming are the conscious experience, the electrophysiological, the motor and the vegetative expression of oniric behaviors in humans as well as in other animals. Chase MH, Morales FR. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). 2009 Nov;10(11):803-13. doi: 10.1038/nrn2716. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). 102. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. 18. 121. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). The meaning of dreams. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Dement WC. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. Life Science 1989;45:1349-56. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. However, they ignored that the dreams were produced by the brain. Inasmuch as dreaming seems to occur in most birds and mammals, it is unlikely that it has no function in the animal organism. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Roffwarg HP, Herman J, Lamstein S. The middle ear muscles: predictability of their phasic action in REM sleep from dream recall. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. 3. A regular oscillation modulates the amplitude of the potentials. 32. 95. Harvey Lect 1963;58:233-97. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Nat Rev Neurosci. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. 125. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. They include facilitation of memory storage, Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. 64. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. Descending projections from the dorsolateral pontine tegmentum to the paramedian reticular nucleus of the caudal medulla in the cat. cognitive development. Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. In blind people, whose auditory and somesthetic sensitivity is enhanced, auditory dreams predominate, as expected from their high auditory sensibility. When a dream has a verbal content the tongue, lips and other facial muscles do contract and if the dream is deambulatory several lower limb muscles do contract, expressing the behavior triggered by the imagined walking. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Rothschuch KR. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. 132. Perspective of Motor Behavior and its Neural Basis. 107. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. 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